Wales or Cymru (roughly pronounced kum-ree) is one of the three countries that makes up the United Kingdom (the other two being England and Scotland, along with the province of Northern Ireland). Wales is a Celtic country facing Ireland across the Irish sea. Wales comes from several iterations of the Volcae, a Gallic tribe whose name became synonymous with the western peoples of the Roman Empire. The Anglo-Saxons adopted this language for the region. Wales is also referred to as Cambria, the Latinized form of Cymru, the Welsh language name of the country.
This area has been inhabited for hundreds of thousands of years. The oldest concrete burial dates to 24,000 BC in the Gower and is the oldest known ritual burial in the Isles. Continuous settlement began after the last ice age around 9000 BC as the ice cap melted. By 5000 BC, Wales achieved its current shape. This warming period made agriculture possible along with permanent communities. The Neolithic Welsh left behind stone chambered tombs called cromlechi that can still be seen today and serve as a testament to how populated the area has become. Wales moved into the Iron Age with the earliest iron artifact dating to 600 BC. Numerous hill forts were built before the Romans arrived a few hundred years later.
But arrive they did, conquering the tribes of Wales by 80 AD. Roman rule lasted three hundred years and had an impact on the art and language of the Welsh. Unlike other places, Latin was not widely adopted, but certain words were incorporated into the local languages. As the Roman Empire began falling apart, the farthest edges lost their overlords first. Welsh kingdoms rapidly filled in around former Roman strongholds and some Irish arrivals also took advantage of the power vacuum. The Kingdoms of Gwent, Gwynedd, Powys, Deheubarth, Morgannwg, and Brycheiniog all developed along with a few lesser principalities.
There is some evidence that Christianity remained in the south from the end of the Empire. But however Christianity arrived, monasticism was well under way by the 6th century. Due to geographical challenges and lack of urban centers, the Welsh church maintained much autonomy and for a while their own calendar. For these same reasons, monasteries were more vital for the Celtic church than a mighty bishopric. Among them was David, now St. David, whose heavy emphasis on aestheicism and hard work, saw him venerated through the present day.
The Welsh language split from the Brition language in the sixth century after a definitive battle firmly established the split between Wales and what would become England under the Anglo-Saxons. The barrier was further cemented by the building of Offa's Dyke in the eighth century, an earthern work by Mercia for protection from the Welsh principalities. This separation allowed the Welsh language and culture to flourish away from the influences that impacted the development of modern English.
The Vikings did arrive in Wales around the same time as the rest of the Isles, but there is little proof of permanent settlements like that at York (Jorvik) in Northern England. Some places, like Angelsey, have Scandinavian names and while the Vikings were certainly present in Wales, the principalities do not seems to have been so substantially interrupted.
During this same time period, the Law of Wales was established in 940 AD. The law focused on the reconcilliation of groups within Wales over punishment. The set of laws provides a glimpse into early Medieval Wales and was a cornerstone of Welsh peoples for centuries to come.
But new invaders were coming and Wales wouldn't be immune to their changes.
Wales has faced nearly a milennia of brutal subjugation by the English, but their story is much less known than that of Ireland and Scotland, possibly due to their small population (roughly 3 million), lack of representation of the Welsh story in modern media, and ongoing negative attitudes towards the Welsh culture and language.
When the Normans landed in England in 1066, not a single portion of the Isles would remain untouched. William the Conquerer's defeat of Harold Godwinson kickstarted the unification, or rather subjugation, the British Isles. Unlike the Kingdom of Mercia, William wasn't content to stop at the Welsh border. He made a 1081 pilgrimage to St. David's (or a scouting mission depending on who you talk to). Rhys ap Tewdyr, King of Deheubarth, made a shrewd deal to marry his daughter Nest to a Norman lord and he stayed in power without any bloodshed. To shore up power in the area, Willliam awarded several trusted members of his retinue with new lordships along the Welsh border called the Marches in the Doomsday Book. The Marcher Lords of Chester, Shrewsbury and Hereford (Pembroke and Shrewsburg were later added to these) were given much freedom including the ability to make their own laws, to wage war, to build castles, and to name market towns. These priviledges gave the Marcher lords king-like ability within their demenses, much to the chagrin of the Welsh and future English monarchs who found their independence disconcerting.
William's choice of men, those of aggressive and grasping natures, saw encroachment into Welsh territory. The Kingdom of Gwent fell to Hereford in 1086. Shrewbury pushed into the border lands building a castle in Montgomery. Chester pushed deep into Gwynedd. But the Welsh were not ones for overlords. The Kingdoms regrouped and by 1100, they succeeded in reclaiming Gwynedd, Ceredigion and parts of Powys from the Normans. The one more lasting impact of the Norman incursion was the reformation of the Welsh church under Cantebury and the introduction of French monastical orders like Cluny. The Welsh princes also learned from their invaders and began to build castles and develop calvaries. The price was to at least acknowledge the overlordship of the English kings. The interference in Welsh politics varied by monarch with Henry I and II spending lots of efforts on politics while other monarchs had bigger issues at court and on the Continent.
During the lackluster rule of King John, Llywelyn the Great of Gwynedd took advantage. Married to John's illegimate daughter Joan, Llywelyn captured the Powys and northern Ceredigion. John sent troops, but Joan intervened and was able to secure peace for her husband. Along with other disastrous decisions, John was forced to sign the Magna Carta. In 1216, Llywelyn was recognized as the new overlord of Wales, a position formally recognized by the English crown in 1218 at the Treaty of Worcester.
Llywelyn ruled for another two decades with little challenge to his power. Henry III of England was less inclined to recognize Llywelyn son's suzerainty. He died, childless, before it could be decided and the grandsons (through another son) looked to consolidate power. By 1256, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd had come out of scrum on top. He took to styling himself as the Prince of Wales, not just of Gwynedd. His timing was perfect as the English Barons rose up in revolt again Henry under the capable leadership of Simon de Montfort. Offering himself as an ally, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd was able to make inroads in the Marches. Henry was forced to recognize him as Prince of Wales in 1267.
But his success was short-lived. Henry died five years later, leaving his throne to the capable and terrifying Edward. The new king made an about face with regards to Wales -- he kidnapped Llywelyn's betrothed, the daught of Montfort, and demanded homage. When the Prince of Wales refused, Edward declared him a rebel and began an inexhautable pursuit of his Welsh nemesis. A temporary treaty was signed with much of the Prince's land reverting to the English crown. But Edward's overlords were harsh adimistrators and routinely applied English, not Welsh laws. One-time Welsh allies revolted against Edward. Llywelyn managed to evade English capture until the Battle or Orewin Bridge at Builth Wells on December 11, 1282. There are varying accounts, but Llywelyn was killed and Welsh resistance lost their most important leader. The late Prince's younger brother, Dafydd, briefly assumed the title before Edward captured him, too, and had him executed at Shrewsbury in 1283.
Best known as the Hammer of the Scots, Edward's epithet should read the Hammer of Wales. His built or rebuilt more than a dozen castles throughout Wales in addition to fortications in the Marches to ensure his dominance over the Welsh people. The remainder of Llywelyn's family was imprisoned, palced in nunneries, or killed. Conquered lands were reorganixed into new administrative areas and the ever powerful Marcher lords were given more Welsh lands. Edward's all out campaign on the brutal domination of the Welsh principalities concluded with his crowning his own son and heir, the future Edward II, as the Prince of Wales. This title has continued to be used for the heir to the British throne, with much consternation.
Resentment was apparent from the get go. The militarily experienced Welsh gentry found roles in both the English and French armies as a way to amass wealth and influence. One great nephew of Llywelyn's and Dafydd's attempted to win French support for Welsh autonomy. Tensions in Wales flared in the 1340s and 1370s without meaningful advancement. By the beginning of the 15th century the unrest boiled over into the rebillion of Owain Glyndŵr.
Owain had matrilineal ties to Llywelyn the Great and patrilineal ties to Powys, He was raised along the borderlands, was educated in London, served in the English army, and married into a Marcher family. But in 1399, chaos reigned in England. Richard II was overthrown by Henry VI, a powerful Marcher lord. Welsh gentry and other Marcher lords were wary of the newcomer, particularly the Mortimer family whose own claim to the throne was better than Henry's. Owain was declared Prince of Wales on September 16, 1400 at Glyndyfrdwy - this day is still celebrated in Wales today.
Henry sent troops in, but made little headways in the hostile Welsh terrain, perfect for the guerilla tactics of Owain's men. Frustrated, the English king introduced the Penal Code that prevented Welshman and Englishmen married to Welsh women the right to gather, hold office, or bear arms. Owain's successes continued and with the backing of the French in 1405, the Welsh were optomistic. But the future Henry V proved himself to be a skilled military strategist and retook the castles of Aberystwyth and Harlech within a few years. Owain became a fugitive dying around 1416. The widespread destruction by the English devastated the Welsh economy and it took decades to recover. But Owain's rebellion was increasingly central to Welsh identity and one of the greatest Welsh heros, not dissimilar from William Walace.
The War of Roses impacted Wales as much as the rest of England with loyalties shifting back and forth as the Lancastrian and Yorkist forces vied for the throne. The ultimate winner was Henry Tudor, a man of Welsh and French origins. While the ties between Henry VII and Wales have been overblown, he wasn't as oppressive on his homeland as previous rulers. His son, however, proved much more detrimental to the Welsh. Henry VIII was determined to centralize power and created the first Act of Union in 1536 (a term used much later). He dismantled the privledges of the Marcher lords, reorganized Wales and the border lands together, and abolished the much cherished Law of Wales. Members of Parliament began representing Wales in 1542, but weren't initially adept at advocating for the Welsh population.
But even more brutal than the change of law, was the supression of the Welsh language. The Welsh Language is an insular Celtic language, which has two main branches. The Goidelic (Irish, Manx, and Scots Gealic) and Brittonic (Welsh, Cornish, and Breton). It
Henry VIII declared that English was to be the legal language of Wales. Many of the gentry already spoke English, but this supressed Welsh to the middle and lower classes leading to public attitudes about the language and Welsh people. Teachers in the 19th century presented Welsh speaking students with Welsh Nots as a form of humiliation. Holiday homes and an influx of English retirees further threatened the language and some counties have put limits on purchases by those that do not reside in Wales. In 2011, Welsh became an official language of Wales alongside English and is now taught in schools, increasing the number of speakers. There is still open language discrimination, particularly among the media.
Despite the linguistic supression, Henry VIII's break from the Catholic church proved a boon for the Welsh language. Vernacular was used in service and the BIble and Book of Common Prayer were the first books printed in Welsh. Books continued to be printed in Welsh throughout the next several centuries although at a much reduced rate to English ones. Schools were set up in the mid 18th century in urban centers and mobile schools moved through the mostly rural population of Wales, increasing literary rates to an estimated 50%.
Around this time, the industrial revolution reached the Welsh. Fueled by the multitude of wars in the late 18th and early 19th century, mining and steelworks became enormous industries in Wales. Almost entirely rural a century earlier, by 1851, two-thirds of Welsh families were supported through industry making Wales the second industrial nation in the world after England. Steam engine development and the coal industry in the Welsh hills helped the area boom. Cardiff became a major port after it was connected to the coal and iron mines at Merthyr Tydfil in 1841.
In the late 19th century, MPs began to assert the nationhood of Wales, that Great Britain was made of four nations, not only three (England, Scotland, and Ireland). A rare few called for all out independence, but the majority advocated for more rights, along with recognition of Welsh language and culture. One of these ambitious MPs was David Lloyd George who was to become the first, and so far only, Welsh Prime Minister from 1916 to 1922. In 1889, language received a boon with recognition in the school system. Universities including Aberystwyth, Cardiff, and Bangor were founded and the National Museum and National Library received their royal charters just after the turn of the century. These efforts opened up studies for the Welsh language and history.
Following World War I, during which 40,000 Welshman gave their lives, political unrest and worker protests caused economic upheaval. The Great Depression quickly followed costing many jobs and throwing lower classes further into poverty. Unemployment remained high (around 15% for males) until World War II broke out. Welsh port towns especially Swansea and Cardiff were heavily bombed. Coal and steel continued to decline through the end of the 20th century, replaced by service and tech industries.
In 1967, the Welsh Language Act stated that Wales was no longer a part of England giving the Welsh a position within the UK. It also expanded areas, including some legal situations, where the Welsh langauge could be used. A referrundum for a national assembly failed in 1979, but passed in 1997, with the National Assembly of Wales first meeting in 1999. Its powers were expanded in 2006 and again in 2011. The body was renamed Senedd Cymru or (the Welsh Parliament) in 2020. The Welsh language is again increasing with a recent survey estimating that nearly 30% of the population spoke Welsh. The flag of Wales (a red dragon on a field of green and white) is now internationally recognized as a country in its own right.
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